Although passenger pigeons, now extinct, were abundant in eighteenth-and nineteenth-century America, archaeological studies at twelfth-century Cahokian sites in the present-day United States examined household food trash and found that traces of passenger pigeon were quite rare. Given that the sites were close to a huge passenger pigeon roost documented by John James Audubon in the nineteenth century and that Cahokians consumed almost every other animal protein source available, the archaeologist conducting the studies concluded the passenger pigeon population had once been very limited before increasing dramatically in post-Columbian America. Other archaeologists have criticized those conclusions on the grounds that passenger pigeon bones would not be likely to be preserved. But all the archaeological projects found plenty of bird bones--and even some tiny bones from fish.

　　7. The author of the passage mentions "tiny bones from fish" primarily in order to

　　A. Explain why traces of passenger pigeon are rare at Cahokian sites

　　B. Support a claim about the wide variety of animal proteins in the Cahokian diet

　　C. Provide evidence that confirms a theory about the extinction of the passenger pigeon

　　D. Cast doubt on the conclusion reached by the archaeologists who conducted the studies discussed in the passage

　　E. Counter an objection to an interpretation of the data obtained from Cahokian sites

　　8. Which of the following, if true, would most call into question the reasoning of "the archaeologists conducting the studies"?

　　A. Audubon was unable to correctly identify twelfth-century Cahokian sites.

　　B. Audubon made his observations before passenger pigeon populations began to decline.

　　C. Passenger pigeons would have been attracted to household food trash.

　　D. Archaeologists have found passenger pigeon remains among food waste at eighteenth-century human settlements.

　　E. Passenger pigeons tended not to roost at the same sites for very many generations.

　　In 1995 the Galileo spacecraft captured data about Jupiter’s atmosphere--namely, the absence of most of the predicted atmospheric water--that challenged prevailing theories about Jupiter’s structure. The unexpectedness of this finding fits a larger pattern in which theories about planetary composition and dynamics have failed to predict the realities discovered through space exploration. Instead of "normal planets" whose composition could be predicted by theory, the planets populating our solar system are unique individuals whose chemical and tectonic identities were created through numerous contingent events. One implication of this is that although the universe undoubtedly holds other planetary systems, the duplication of the sequence that produced our solar system and the development of life on Earth is highly unlikely.

　　Recently planetary scientists have suggested that the external preconditions for the development of Earth’s biosphere probably included four paramount contingencies. First, a climate conducive to life on Earth depends upon the extraordinarily narrow orbital parameters that define a continuously habitable zone where water can exist in a liquid state. If Earth’s orbit were only 5 percent smaller than it is, temperatures during the early stages of Earth’s history would have been high enough to vaporize the oceans. If the Earth-Sun distance were as little as 1 percent larger, runaway glaciation on Earth about 2 billion years ago would have caused the oceans to freeze and remain frozen to this day.

　　Second, Jupiter’s enormous mass prevents most Sun一bound comets from penetrating the inner solar system. It has been estimated that without this shield, Earth would have experienced bombardment by comet-sized impactors a thousand

　　times more frequently than has actually been recorded during geological time. Even if Earth’s surface were not actually sterilized by this bombardment, it is unlikely that any but the most primitive life-forms could have survived. This suggests that only planetary systems containing both terrestrial planets like Earth and gas giants like Jupiter might be capable of sustaining complex life-forms.

　　Third, the gravitational shield of the giant outer planets, while highly efficient, must occasionally fail to protect Earth. Paradoxically, while the temperatures required for liquid water exist only in the inner solar system, the key building blocks of life, including water itself, occur primarily beyond the asteroid belt. Thus the evolution of life has depended on a frequency of cometary impacts sufficient to convey water, as well as carbon and nitrogen, from these distant regions of the solar system to Earth while stopping short of an impact magnitude that would destroy the atmosphere and oceans.

　　Finally, Earth’s unique and massive satellite, the Moon, plays a crucial role in stabilizing the obliquity of Earth’s rotational axis, This obliquity creates the terrestrial seasonality so important to the evolution and diversity of life. Mars, in contrast, has wildly oscillating tilt and chaotic seasonality, while Venus, rotating slowly backward, has virtually no seasonality at all.

　　9. The passage is primarily concerned with

　　A. Enumerating conditions that may have been necessary for a particular development

　　B. Outlining the conditions under which scientists may be able to predict certain events

　　C. Explaining how a particular finding affected scientists ’understanding of a phenomenon

　　D. Suggesting reasons why a particular outcome was more likely to occur than other possible outcomes

　　E. Assessing the relative significance of factors that contributed to a particular occurrence

　　10. It can be inferred from the passage that the "planetary scientists" would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements concerning the development of complex life forms on Earth?

　　A. It might have occurred earlier in Earth’s history if cometary impacts had been less frequent than they were.

　　B. It could have occurred if Earth’s orbit were 1 percent larger than it is but not if Earth’s orbit were 5 percent smaller

　　C. It probably follows a pattern common on other terrestrial planets that occupy planetary systems containing gas giants.

　　D. Its dependence on the effect that Jupiter’s gravitational shield has on Earth was difficult to recognize prior to 1995.

　　E. It has been contingent on conditions elsewhere in Earth’s solar system as well as on conditions on Earth itself.

　　11. The author of the passage most likely mentions Mars’ "oscillating tilt" primarily in order to

　　A. Provide evidence for a proposition about the potential effects of cometary impacts

　　B. Emphasize the absence from our solar system of "normal planets"

　　C. Contrast the rotational axis of Mars with that of Venus

　　D. Characterize the role of other planets in the solar system in earth’s development

　　E. Emphasize the importance of the Moon to the development of life on Earth

　　12. The passage suggests each of the following about water on Earth except:

　　A. It was conveyed to Earth by comets

　　B. It appeared on Earth earlier than did carbon and nitrogen

　　C. Its existence in a liquid state is contingent on Earth’s orbital parameters

　　D. Much of it came from a part of the solar system where water cannot exist in a liquid state

　　E. It is unlikely that there would be much of it available to support life if the gravitational shield of the outer planets did not limit the frequency with which comets strike Earth